Theology: Spirituality: A.D. 800 - First Iconoclastic Period

The contributors to this 1992 book examine various aspects of the relationship among Christianity and the visual arts, architecture and music in Russia. Within this broad area the book concentrates on specific topics rather than attempting a broad survey. Nonetheless, the range of material extends from the earliest stages of the introduction of Byzantine art forms in Kievan Russia to the relation between Christian and folk decorative/iconographic motifs to the use of religious imagery in the work of contemporary filmmaker Andrei Tarkovskii. The related interests of the contributors create a concentration of topics in certain periods such as the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Some of the chapters are academically specialized, others are easily accessible to a general audience; but all are based on thorough and careful scholarship. Christianity and the Arts in Russia is based on, but not limited to, a symposium held at the Library of Congress in 1988 to mark the millennium of Russian Christianity.

This book examines the theology of icons in the eighth century, the most critical period in the evolution of the Eastern Church's teaching on images. The principal source is provided by the acta of the Seventh Ecumenical Council of 787. The political circumstances which led to the outbreak of the controversy over icons are discussed in detail but the main emphasis is on the theological arguments and presuppositions of the participants in the council. Major themes include the nature of tradition, the relationship between image and reality and the place of christology. Ultimately the argument over icons was about the accessibility of the divine. Icons were held by the iconophiles to communicate a deifying grace which raised the believer to participation in the life of God.

In 726 the Byzantine emperor, Leo III, issued an edict that all religious images in the empire were to be destroyed, a directive that was later endorsed by a synod of the Church in 753 under his son, Constantine V. If the policy of Iconoclasm had succeeded, the entire history of Christian art--and of the Christian church, at least in the East--would have been altered. Iconoclasm was defeated--by Byzantine politics, by popular revolts, by monastic piety, and, most fundamentally of all, by theology, just as it had been theology that the opponents of images had used to justify their actions. Analyzing an intriguing chapter in the history of ideas, the renowned scholar Jaroslav Pelikan shows how a faith that began by attacking the worship of images ended first in permitting and then in commanding it. Pelikan charts the theological defense of icons during the Iconoclastic controversies of the eighth and ninth centuries, whose high point came in A.D. 787, when the Second Council of Nicaea restored the cult of images in the church. He demonstrates how the dogmas of the Trinity and the Incarnation eventually provided the basic rationale for images: because the invisible God had become human and therefore personally visible in Jesus Christ, it became permissible to make images of that Image. And because not only the human nature of Christ, but that of his Mother had been transformed by the Incarnation, she, too, could be "iconized," together with all the other saints and angels. The iconographic "text" of the book is provided by one of the very few surviving icons from the period before Iconoclasm, the Egyptian tapestry Icon of the Virgin now in the Cleveland Museum of Art. Other icons serve to illustrate the theological argument, just as the theological argument serves to explain the icons.